https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/ Journal of Iranian Handicrafts Studies en daily 1 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115349.html  IntroductionThe pottery and ceramic biennials held from 1981 up to 2021 were a context of the intertwining of artistic trends with social changes. Iran experienced four decades of ups and downs in social changes, and artists achieved various experiences in this turmoil. Artists have not only reflected these changes in their works but also developed identities that simultaneously show the stability of identity against the instability of conditions and the historicity of identity against the contemporary situation in their works. In this way, they express cultural interpretations and narratives in works of art. The aim of this study was to explore how biennials are arenas for artists' competing narratives of traditional-contemporary identity, and traditional-modern art in the four decades from 1981 to 2021. It was also to recognize the influence of pottery biennials on socio-cultural changes and their semantic implications.Research MethodThis study deployed a qualitative approach and used discursive analysis for its method; discourse analysis shows how signs, texts, works, and events are formed around a central signifier that expresses an idea-centeredness and stabilizes a cultural discourse. This study deploys Laclau and Mouffe’s critical discourse analysis method. From the perspective of the objective, it was classified as fundamental research, and the data was collected through library methods, observation of works in museums and exhibitions. This article also addressed five dominant discourses that advanced Iran's cultural developments and influenced events, trends, biennials, and works of art. These discourses included the discourse of cultural revolution, cultural invasion, cultural interaction, cultural engineering, and cultural moderation.Research FindingsThe biennial pottery exhibitions were influenced by cultural and political discourses after the revolution. These discourses can be identified in terms of five important political periods in Iran. These periods include: the first period from the beginning of the revolution to the beginning 1989; the second period from 1989 to 1997; the third period from 1997 to 2005, the so-called Reformist government; the fourth period from 2005 to 2013, the so-called fundamentalist government, and the fifth period from 2013 to 2021, the so-called Moderate government. These periods offered a context for the conflicting dominant/marginal discourses in which the pottery exhibitions took shape. In the discursive space of pottery and ceramic exhibitions and biennials, these two types of dominant/marginal cultural discourses were also in conflict and, thus, influenced the trend of contemporary pottery. The conflict between dominant/marginal discourses in the gaps, ruptures, and fissures of contemporary Iranian society and culture took on many forms, such as city/rural, Iranian/Islamic, traditional/modern, male/female, reformist/ fundamentalist. The lived experience of potters in these situations, gaps, confrontations, and conflicts shaped and reflected in their works.ConclusionThe research findings showed that the pottery biennial was an arena of confrontation and conflict between identity narratives: the conflict between traditional/modern art, religious/national art, naturalistic/abstract art, global/native art, applied/pure art. it was a conflict that ultimately led to the formation of new meanings in the flow of committed art, religious art, critical, feminist, environmental art, and other contemporary artistic experiences. Accordingly, the eleventh pottery biennial was also recognized as an arena of resistance, influenced by cultural discourses, and put forth the pottery movement as an exception in traditional arts, in the ups and downs between practical and semantic aspects, between tradition and modernity https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115181.html Introduction This study examines the conceptual evolution of ‘imitation’ (taqlid) and mimesis (muhākāt) from classical Greek philosophy to the Iranian-Islamic intellectual tradition, focusing on the ways these frameworks inform artistic creation, imagination, and symbolic representation. In Greek thought, Plato presents mimesis as epistemologically problematic: art imitates the world of senses as it is a copy of the intelligible Forms; thus, art misleads the soul. Aristotle reinterprets mimesis as a natural human capacity for learning, emotional refinement, and cognitive understanding, positioning art as ethically and which is psychologically valuable. Islamic philosophers, including Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Nasir al-Din Tusi, inherited the Aristotelian thought, but they expanded it significantly while emphasizing imagination (takhayyul) as a mediating faculty between the sensory and intelligible realities. This study aims to clarify the conceptual differences between Plato’s and Aristotle’s mimesis and to distinguish between ‘taqlid’ and ‘muhākāt,’ thereby providing a nuanced understanding of the role of imagination, imitation, and representation in shaping traditional aesthetics through the lens of Islamic philosophical thought.   Research Method This study employed a conceptual-comparative analysis to trace the evolution and reinterpretation of imitation and mimesis across Greek and Iranian-Islamic philosophy. The approach focused on philosophical texts by Plato, Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Nasir al-Din Tusi to examine definitions, theoretical frameworks, and applications of imitation, imagination, and representation. The analysis emphasizedfour dimensions: 1) ontological/epistemological status, imitation/ imaginative creation, and sensory/intelligible realities; 2) the role of imagination, and the waystakhayyul mediates between perception and metaphysical truths in Islamic thought compared to Aristotle’s cognitive-emotional interpretation;3)the artistic purpose and the ethical dimension as evaluating the ways artistic creation integrates ethical and spiritual considerations; 4) terminological clarification as distinguishing between ‘taqlid’ (technical imitation) and ‘muhākāt’ (symbolic, imaginative representation). By systematically comparing these frameworks, the study identifies both the continuity of Aristotelian reception and the transformative impact of Islamic metaphysical and ethical perspectives on the theory of art. Research Findings The research findings demonstrated a significant conceptual evolution in the understanding of imitation and mimesis as it emphasizes the interconnected dimensions as belows: Transformation of Greek concepts: in Greek philosophy, Plato and Aristotle present contrasting approaches to mimesis. Plato’s hierarchical ontology casts art as epistemologically inferior since it reproduces appearances, creating a “copy of a copy” that cannot convey true knowledge. Aristotle rehabilitates mimesis, framing it as a natural human capacity linked to cognitive understanding, emotional regulation, and ethical development. Artistic imitation is, thus, structured and purposeful, contributing to moral and intellectual cultivation. This Aristotelian reinterpretation lays the foundation for Islamic philosophers to reconceive the scope and purpose of mimesis. Islamic reinterpretation--From imitation to imaginative Mmdiation: Islamic thinkers transform mimesis into a process of imaginative mediation. Al-Farabi integrates Aristotelian mimesis with a metaphysical perspective, emphasizing imagination (takhayyul) as a faculty that shapes sensory input to reflect intelligible truths. Ibn Sina expands this framework, presenting imagination (quwwat al-mutakhayyila) as a synthesizing faculty connecting sensory perception with metaphysical meaning, and even functioning as a conduit for prophetic knowledge. Nasir al-Din Tusi further situates artistic creation within the ethical cultivation of the soul, conceptualizing it as an intentional and spiritually informed act. Across these thinkers, mimesis evolves from a simple replication into ‘muhākāt,’a symbolic representation that conveys metaphysical, ethical, and spiritual realities. Redefining the role of the artist: In this framework, the artist becomes an active mediator rather than a passive imitator. Artistic creation aligns human perception with cosmic and divine order, embodying ethical and metaphysical insight. While Aristotle emphasizes catharsis as emotional purification, Islamic philosophers extend this to include metaphysical purification, situating art as a vehicle for spiritual and intellectual cultivation. The artist functions as a mirror of higher truths, guiding understanding and ethical awareness through imaginative mediation.Collectively, these findings clarify the distinction between ‘taqlid’ and ‘muhākāt,’ showing how Islamic philosophical reinterpretations expand, deepen, and ethically enrich the original Greek concepts of ‘imitation’ and mimesis, ultimately shaping a sophisticated traditional aesthetic framework. Reframing the role of the artist:in the Islamic philosophical framework, the artist functions as an active mediator rather than a passive imitator. Artistic creation aligns the soul with divine order, embodies ethical and spiritual insight, and communicates transcendent realities. While Aristotle focuses on catharsis as emotional purification, Islamic philosophers extend the concept to include metaphysical purification. The artist, thus, becomes a mirror of higher truths, shaping forms that cultivate understanding and spiritual awareness. Conclusion This study demonstrates that the concepts of mimesis, ‘taqlid,’ and ‘muhākāt’ have undergone substantial conceptual transformation from Greek to Iranian-Islamic thought. Plato positions mimesis as a limited and potentially misleading process, while Aristotle reframes it as a morally and cognitively beneficial activity. Islamic philosophers follow Aristotelian principles, but they expand the scope emphasizing imagination (takhayyul) as a metaphysical and ethical faculty mediating between sensory perception and intelligible realities. Through this lens, artistic creation is not mere replication but a symbolic, contemplative, and ethically oriented act, reflecting a deeper engagement with metaphysical and spiritual truths. The study has also clarified the conceptual distinction between ‘taqlid’ and ‘muhākāt.’ ‘Taqlid’ refers to external, technical imitation, whereas muhākāt involves imaginative and symbolic mediation, integrating metaphysical, ethical, and intellectual dimensions. By redefining the role of the artist as an active mediator of truth rather than a passive imitator, Islamic philosophical thought elevates the purpose of artistic creation, aligning it with ethical cultivation and spiritual insight. Ultimately, the findings have illustrated how Greek philosophical foundations, when reinterpreted in the Islamic intellectual tradition, produce a sophisticated framework for understanding art, imagination, and representation. This framework emphasizes the interrelation of metaphysical knowledge, ethical reflection, and symbolic mediation, offering a nuanced understanding of traditional aesthetics. The study highlights the enduring relevance of philosophical inquiry into imitation, imagination, and artistic creation, revealing how classical and Islamic perspectives jointly shape a comprehensive theory of art that transcends mere visual replication, serving as a medium for intellectual, ethical, and spiritual development. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115198.html Introduction The use of henna has been widespread among Iranians. This ritual has had diverse functions, including cosmetic, medicinal, and religious ones. The use of henna is manifested through its own specific rituals and objects. It appears that across the vast geography and ethnic diversity of Iran, these objects and rituals exhibit differences. Varied ritual characteristics have undergone changes and evolution in the way henna ceremonies were performed. Corresponding to these changes, the tools and equipment used have also transformed. In most regions of Iran, these objects are fabrics with unique decorations, especially prepared for each celebration. Another item used in these ceremonies is the henna-ceremony footstool.The henna ceremony footstool is an ornate bench used in henna ceremonies, placed under the feet. As one sits on a chair or stool,he/she places the soles of both feet on the concave arches designed as a footstool. Materials and Methods Henna ceremony footstools show little variation in the overall form and function. Their primary differences lie in the materials used and decorative patterns. In all texts reviewed by the author, only stone footstools were mentioned, implying a lack of awareness of the other types made from different materials. Given that stone, wood, and metal footstools existed in the Qajar period and the sources and knowledge about these objectswere limited, research in this area is essential. Both the Qajar and, to some extent, the contemporary specimens of these objects are available for study in terms of the number and the quality of decorative patterns. Furthermore, these objects are deeply connected to the realm of popular culture.The present research, aiming to identify, classify, and analyze the formal and decorative features of these objects in the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, deployed a descriptive-analytic method with a developmental approach. Numerous specimens of henna ceremony footstools were found in anthropological museums and private collections. Since the customs related to henna ceremonies in Iran were fading, the use of these objects has also become limited. Collecting the images of these footstools required extensive field research across the vast geography of Iran. Accordingly, the statistical population of this research included all henna ceremony footstools produced in Iran. The statistical sample, selected purposively based on accessibility, included all artifacts (or their documented images and sources) belonging to the Qajar and the early Pahlavi eras, which were extracted from anthropological museums and private collectors in ten locations across Iran (provinces of Fars, Yazd, Kerman, Isfahan, Lorestan, Arak, Tehran, and Mazandaran). Within the framework of its documented findings regarding the triple interaction of raw material type, socio-economic variables, and popular culture in the formation of henna ceremony footstools, this research investigated the following central question: how could the key factors affecting the artistic quality and decorative features of henna ceremony footstools (stone, metal, wood) be explained within the framework of the interaction of these three materials?  Results and Findings Based on the research findings, from a quantitative perspective, the highest frequency in the studied dataset belonged to stone samples. This finding, consistent with the evidence documented in historical texts and contemporary research, indicated the prominent position of stone as the primary material in the production of these artifacts. Metal samples, primarily made of copper, ranked second in frequency. Although the use of these samples in humid environments like bathhouses presented limitations, the significant number of surviving metal artifacts from the Qajar era indicated their continued use during specific time frames. In contrast, wooden samples had the smallest share in the studied collection. The patterns used on henna ceremony footstools were executed at three different levels, depending on the material: Stone Henna Footstool:Limited, geometric decorations. Copper Henna Footstool:Numerous decorations, medium production Wooden Henna Board:Numerous decorations, high-quality production. These artifacts were primarily made from local marble at low cost. The simple, unsigned construction method, along with inattention to non-visible surfaces, suggested mass production and pure functionality. Evidence, including oral histories, raised the possibility of their production by non-specialists (such as housewives). The consistent design of these stones over time indicated the priority of popular ritual function over artistic aspects, presenting them as the evidence of ritual practices and perhaps a reflection of social hierarchy. In contrast, copper footstools from regions with copper mines exhibited greater decorative diversity, adorned with busy and local engravings (likely influenced by popular taste in regions like Kerman or Yazd). These artifacts were more expensive and probably targeted a middle-class clientele. The most distinctive samples were the wooden henna boards with delicate marquetry, influenced by the Abadeh marquetry traditions and Gol-o-Morgh (flower and bird) paintings. Their delicacy and use of high-quality wood indicated production for an affluent consumer market in the late Qajar period. Although historical samples were rare, the limited production of these boards in the north of Fars province continued as part of dowries, demonstrating their functional flexibility and symbolic traditional identity in contemporary ceremonies. Overall, these objects carry the socio-cultural weight of their period and had largely lost their primary function in contemporary era. Conclusion The results of this research have shown that henna ceremony footstools are not mere ritual tools, but they are the cultural documents of the interaction between popular arts, social classes, and the geographical environment in Iran. These objects were identified based on raw materials into three groups: stone, wood, and metal, each of which reflected the economic conditions, aesthetic taste, and the technical skills of their makers. While stone samples signified simplicity and functionality among the general public, wooden and metal samples reflected artistic skills as well as a tendency toward more refined decorations. From a semiotic perspective, the floral, animal, and human motifs used in these works conveyed meanings such as fertility, purity, auspiciousness, and the protection of the bride against the evil eye—concepts rooted in feminine beliefs and rites of passage to marriage. The continued production of wooden samples in Abadeh also indicated the dynamism of material culture and the continuity of indigenous traditions within contemporary society. Accordingly, henna ceremony footstools can be considered a ‘cultural medium’ in which popular arts, social rituals, and ritual symbolism are interwoven. Continued ethnographic and laboratory studies regarding the origin of raw materials and the symbolic meanings of their motifs can lead to a deeper understanding of the place of women's ritual arts in Iranian culture. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115208.html IntroductionThe Safavid period (1501–1722 CE) marks the golden age of Persian carpet weaving, enabled by political stability, economic prosperity, and royal patronage. Workshops in cities such as Isfahan, Kashan, Tabriz, and Kerman produced masterpieces now preserved in major museums (Pope & Ackerman, 2008). ‘Salting’ carpets— named after an English collector, George Salting,and crafted in 16th–17th century Safavid royal workshops— feature vibrant colors, dense knots, silk and wool foundations, silver-gilt threads, and designs, including medallions, mihrab, arabesques, and inscriptions. Iranian specimmesn are notable for their finesse and quality. Over time, environmental exposure, poor handling, and improper cleaning have caused fading, silk degradation, metal corrosion, and localized damage. Technical studies including fiber and dye analyses reveal their materials, weaving techniques, and historical context while they provide crucial insight for effective conservation and preservation strategies.Research MethodThe study focused on a late Safavid gilt-metal (Golabatun) medallion carpet, attributed to Tabriz, measuring 302×166 cm, with a corner-medallion (Lachak-Toranj) design, quarter field, and Nastaliq inscription. The carpet combines wool, silk, and silver-gilt threads, woven with symmetrical knots, and features main colors of red, navy, pistachio green, and orange. Despite previous restoration, the carpet exhibits damages including tears, stains, wear, and burn marks. Acomparative analysis with Safavid-period carpets was conducted to confirm dating, origin, and artistic features.Fiber sampling was minimaland including representative pile colors, warp, and weft, taken from deteriorated or loose areas to avoid damaging intact regions. Samples were coded and stored in sterile containers. Fiber identification combined microscopy, chemical tests, and burning analysis. Microscopic examination of longitudinal and cross-sections identified wool, silk, and cotton fibers, supported by chemical tests (NaOH for proteins; lead acetate for cellulosics) and combustion behavior. Sizing on the support was verified using Molisch and iodine-starch tests.Golabatun threads were analyzed using digital loop microscopy for surface wear, breakage, and corrosion, and SEM-EDS to determine chemical composition and structure. Nitric acid tests confirmed the presence of silver and trace copperalong with gold surface gilding verified by SEM and FTIR spectroscopy of the silk core.Weave structure was examined by counting knots, warp, and weft density; knot type and arrangement were also documented. Color identification involved preliminary chemical tests followed by FTIR spectroscopy to detect mordants and pigments.Conservation tests assessed fiber stability and sensitivity; aqueous swelling measured dimensional changes after wetting and drying; colorfastness tests evaluated resistance to light and humidity, and color transfer tests verified that washing would not leach dyes. These combined methods provided a comprehensive assessment of the carpet’s materials, structure, and conservation requirements while ensuring minimal damage during sampling. Research FindingsThe Salting gilt-metal carpet from the Carpet Museum of Iran exhibited an asymmetrical (Persian) knot structure, a “Lool” weaving technique, silk warp and weft, fine wool pile, and gilt-metal (Golabatun) decorations with a silk core. Colorants were entirely natural and plant-based. Weaving density was measured at approximately nine knots per centimeter (about 60 knots per 6.5 cm), reflecting the weavers’ skill and precision. Microscopic examination confirmed the use of asymmetrical knots, with S-twist wefts and Z-twist Golabatun threads. The back curvature and warp arrangement indicated the “Lool” technique typical of Azerbaijani weaving, particularly Tabriz, which produced prominent knots visible on the reverse side. The Golabatun sections showed metallic strips wrapped around silk threads, creating a fabric-like effect. Fiber identification showed that warp, wefts, and supplementary weft threads were silk, while the pile was wool. Longitudinal and cross-sectional microscopy confirmed tubular, smooth silk and cylindrical, scaly wool fibers. Chemical tests with 5% NaOH and lead acetate corroborated these findings. Support threads included cotton and wool, with characteristic thermal and morphological behaviors. Golabatun threads were found to consist of silver coated with gold, with minor copper content, which was confirmed via microscopic, SEM-EDS, and chemical analyses. The gold layer is more concentrated at the exterior, serving as both decorative and protective coating. FTIR analysis identified natural dyes: indigo for blue, a combination of madder (Rubia), and approximately 10% cochineal for red, mordanted with white alum. Sizing analysis, using the Molisch and iodine-starch tests, confirmed the presence of starch-based carbohydrate sizing. Damage assessment revealed extensive deterioration due to environmental, chemical, biological, and mechanical factors, including color fading, pile wear, warp/weft breakage, moth damage, and previous restoration issues. PH measurements indicated acidic conditions (mean pH ≈ 5), promoting fiber degradation. SEM-EDS results showed corrosion of Golabatun fibers, with silver sulfide and chloride layers forming due to environmental exposure. Conservation tests demonstrated that aqueous washing did not cause fiber swelling or color transfer, confirming the method’s safety. Preventive measures, including controlled humidity (40–55%), stable temperature (18–21 °C), UV-free LED lighting, and display in ventilated laminated glass cases, were recommended to stabilize and protect the carpet while allowing optimal viewing.ConclusionThe Salting gilt-woven carpet featured a Persian knot, a lul weaving technique, silk warp and weft, and fine wool pile. It was decorated with golabatoon threads made of gilded silver with a silk core;all dyeswere natural and plant-based. Damage analyses of the carpet and its support indicated acidic conditions, weakness and deterioration of silk fibers, and corrosion of metal decorations caused by environmental factors such as light, humidity, and airborne pollutants. Mechanical damages,including fractures, compression, and tears that resulted from improper storage and past restorationsfurther contributed to structural degradation. Wet-cleaning and colorfastness tests confirmed that a controlled washing method was safe. Based on these findings, a conservation plan was designed following the principles of minimal intervention, reversibility, and material compatibility, including the removal of acidic supports, controlled surface cleaning, reinforcement with compatible backing, and limited repair of previous losses. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115119.html IntroductionAs tangible cultural heritage, Sangabs (large stone basins) have a special position as well as various material functionsin the cultural sphere. The status and function of these artifacts have always been proportional to the place and space in which they are situated. Although many Sangabs have lost their primary use today and turned into museum objects, an in-depth analysis of historical and geographical texts can reveal their rich functional and conceptual dimensions. This research aims to define the status of Sangabs more precisely as it seeks to discover their functional links by answering these two main questions: where were Sangabs placed? and what were their primary functions?MethodThis research is descriptive-analytical and theoretical in objective. The data collection method was library based, with information collected aboutSangabsfrom the texts on history and geography written in the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries AH. The research population consisted of books and treatises indexed in the Nur al-Sirah and Jughrafiya-yiJahan-i Islam collections, from which sixteen volumes were selected. The Sampling waspurposive. Data analysis was conducted using a qualitative method, involving the coding, extraction, and classification of relevant sentences and passages, followed by a content analysis of these materials.Research FindingsThe findings of this research indicated that Sangabs were present across a wide geographical area in Iranian cities and even beyond, including Isfahan, Shiraz, Mashhad, Qazvin, Esfarayen, Kashan, Herat, Istanbul, Constantinople, and Medina. Structurally, Sangabs are divided into two main categories: the man-made (crafted from stones such as marble, often featuring inscriptions and calligraphy in the Nastaliq script) and the "natural" (rock pools formed at the foot of mountains by natural factors).The spatial location of Sangabswas highly diverse, encompassing both religious and non-religious spaces. Prominent religious sites included mosques, Imamzadehs, holy shrines, churches, Takayas, and Saqqa-khanehs (public water dispensers). The non-religious sites include palaces and mansions, public baths (hammams), schools (madrasas), bazaars, caravanserais, shops (like those of barbers/delaki), and even museums. Within these structures, Sangabs were installed in high-traffic areas such as the entrance vestibule (hasht-ivorudi), courtyard, iwan, portico (revaq), next to pools and in the changing room of baths (sarbineh).The functions of Sangabs also covered a wide spectrum, tailored to their location. The main uses included: water storage for drinking (public water supply), performing ablutions (wudu), washing/cleaning (in baths and for general hygienic purposes), and ceremonial use (such as baptism in churches). Some natural Sangabs also served as small reservoirs along caravan routes or at the foot of mountains.ConclusionThe results of this research clearly demonstrate that Sangabs were not merely static stone vessels; rather, they were dynamic elements fully integrated into the daily life, culture, and architecture of their era. The analysis of historical and geographical texts from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries AH confirmed that these artifacts, with their broad geographical distribution and existence in both natural and man-made forms, met the biological, religious, and social needs of the communities. The diversity of Sangab installation sites, ranging from mosques and holy shrines to palaces and public baths, highlighted their multifaceted role: sometimes a symbol of sanctity next to a religious site and sometimes a purely functional element serving public welfare in an urban space.The discovery of the link between location and function is one of the most important achievements of this research. For instance, the function of ablution in mosques, washing in baths, and religious commemoration in Saqqa-khanehs perfectly illustrates this connection. Furthermore, the presence of beautiful inscriptions and designs on man-made Sangabs, in addition to their utilitarian purpose, emphasized their artistic and spiritual dimensions, transforming them into a cultural-historical legacy. This research, by systematizing the study of Sangabs through written sources, has not only succeeded in reviving the historical memory of these architectural elements but also provides a model for similar studies on other overlooked cultural artifacts. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115276.html Introduction Baluchistan is located in the southeast of Iran and divided into two main regions: Sarhad in the north and Makoran in the south; the cities of Iranshahr and Saravan are situated between these two expanses. Baluch embroidery reflects the traditions, beliefs, and worldview of this ethnic group, representing the artistic heritage of Baluch women and girls. From an anthropological perspective, embroidery in Baluch culture is not merely a decorative art; rather, it is a cultural mechanism for the continuation of a collective identity as well as a response to the psychological and social needs of the community. Malinowski’s functionalist theory is precisely based on this foundation. It discusses how every cultural element within a social system has a specific role in maintaining balance, cohesion, and the reproduction of shared values. Embroidery can be seen as the tangible embodiment of Malinowski’s cultural functions that extend from basic biological needs to the deepest layers of the Baluch community’s spiritual cohesion. Beyond its decorative aspect, every motif is the concrete manifestation of the relationship between “institutions,” “needs,” and “functions.” Accordingly, every component of society has an effective function relative to the whole society, and its purpose is to meet human needs. Furthermore, according to Malinowski, every cultural phenomenon has two functional dimensions: a positive function that arises when the cultural element helps maintain the cohesion, stability, and balance of the social system and a negative function that is carried out when the same element causes tension, fragmentation, or disorder in the cultural structure. Identifying these two aspects enables an understanding of the internal dynamics of the culture and the interaction of its components with human needs. Materials and Methods The present study adopted a descriptive-analytic approach, gathering documentary data using electronic sources and note-taking tools. The sampling method was purposive; therefore, out of all the motifs present in Baluch embroidery, 40 motifs were selected. These motifs in terms of semantics, of frequency of use, and structural diversity (geometric, floral, animal, human) represent the most important cultural and aesthetic codes of the Baluch people. This selection was made based on distribution, persistent presence in prominent regional works, capacity for symbolization within Malinowski’s theoretical framework, and their role as a representative sample of the entire region and of the diverseBaluch embroidery styles. The objective of this research was to analyze the motifs of Baluch embroidery based on Malinowski’s functionalist theoretical framework to answer this question: how could the meanings of Baluch embroidery motifs be analyzed from the perspective of Malinowski’s functionalism at the three levels of primary, derivative, and spiritual-cohesive? Results and Findings Malinowski’s functionalism is based on three elements: whole, part, and relationship, with its ultimate goal as the preservation of the stability and continuity of the social system. In his view, humans are need-oriented beings and they create cultural mechanisms in order to meet their needs; these mechanisms are the institutions, each of which have a function in meeting biological, social, and psychological needs. In this context, Baluch embroidery was considered a cultural institution that could be analyzed at Malinowski’s three levels of needs. Level of primary needs explored how artistic motifs were symbolic responses to biological needs, protection, sustenance, and survival. Motifs such as Mērchok (small pepper) with the function of “spice, food enhancement, and hospitality solidarity” demonstrated the direct link between culture and biological needs for nutrition. Another example, Bahār (Spring), symbolizes abundance, freshness, and the hope for food production; in Malinowski’s functionalism, these motifs were instances of the cultural response to the biological needs for nutrition and reproduction. Level of derivative deeds was concerned with social institutions and human relationships. For example, the Borok motif (unopened flower bud), which expressed distance, frustration, and unfulfilled desire, had a function of emotional warning; it mirroreda culture that spoke of failure or separation through the language of symbols so as to control emotions and replace social violence. The Katārok motif (dandelion flower) andPād-e_Nonnok (baby’s foot) were also symbolic responses to social needs; the former announced friendship and the latter signified hope for the future and birth. These motifs referred to the continuity of generations and the reconstruction of family relationships. Their function is also social, not merely aesthetic. Level of spiritual-cohesive needs revolves around meanings, beliefs, and identities. The third level in Malinowski’s theory related to human psychological and spiritual needs; they mirrored how a culture in response to existential anxieties, fears, and questions created a system of symbols and beliefs. In Baluch embroidery, this level was manifested by motifs such as Bahār, Burrok, Hashās, Butteh, Penchpalang(Five Leopards), BālKabūtar (Pigeon Wing), Dentalū, Tā’ūs (Peacock), Cham Āhūg (Fawn’s Eye), Kallasiyahmar (Black Snake Head), Ādinak, Palivār, Rōch-Bar, and Delkash Dast Maras. The Penchpalang motif, implying power, unity, and cooperation, carries a function in maintaining the feeling of security and collective fortitude. In turn, it gives rise to moral and philosophical values. In the functional analysis of Baluch embroidery motifs, every motif not only carries meaning but also possesses a dual function: a positive function and a negative function. The positive function was carried out when the motif reinforced cultural cohesion and psychological and social stability, whereas the negative function expressed tension, anxiety, or cultural disharmony. For instance, the Mērchok motif, meaning small pepper, ultimately results in a positive function due to three principles of needs. In contrast, the Burrok motif (unripe blossom) reflects a failure to meet a biological need and is a sign of social tension; it, thus, has a negative function. Conclusion At the level of primary needs, the link between these motifs and biological and livelihood needs was evident. At the level of derivative needs, the motifs lent weight to ethical rules and collective cooperation; ultimately, at the level of spiritual cohesion, they provided collective tranquility. By highlighting three principles of need in the motifs and their positive functions, this analysis helps interpret the reality of how these symbols actively operate in the process of “cultural self-regulation.” This research intelligently focuses on extracting and explaining the positive function of these motifs because its central goal is to identify the symbolic mechanisms that make Baluch’s social system resilient against environmental fluctuations and internal tensions. Therefore, although the potential for negative or dual function exists, our analytical axis is to prove the constructive and stabilizing function of embroidery in the social structure of Baluch women. All findings are gathered in alignment with Malinowski’s views, and it is acknowledged that motifs in any society have a specific function, and their goal is the exaltation of the society. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115219.html IntroductionAfter the establishment of the Ilkhanid dynasty, the Ilkhan's interest in Iranian culture and art led to the emergence of a new approach in the arts of Iran. Add to this, the influence of the ruling tribe's beliefs and culture on artists. This era witnessed distinctive changes in architecture not only in terms of design and construction but also in decorative elements. Geometric motifs were among the most commonly used motifs in architectural decoration as they had the capacity to create a wide variety of compositions. The circle was among the fundamental geometric motifs that embodied multiple meanings and was closely associated with religions and religious beliefs. In this research, the motif of circle in the architectural decorations of several Ilkhanid monuments, including the tomb of Abd al-Samad Natanzi, the tomb of Seyed Rokn al-Din and Seyed Shams al-Din in Yazd, Oshtorjan Mosque were examined. Based on observations and investigations, this motif was found to appear exclusively in the buildings of this era. Research MethodThis research deployed a descriptive- analytic method, using library documents and field observations with a semiotic approach. Since Charles Sanders Peirce's classification is best known for elucidating the "different modes of relationship" between a sign and its object, this study used Peirce's tripartite model and separated the concepts of the circle motif and analyzed it. there are three types of signs in Peirce's framework: first includes analogies or icons, which create images of things only through their visual imitation; second refers to indicators or indices that indicate thing through physical connection to them, and third is concerned with symbols or common signs that are linked to meanings through use and a conventional relationship Due to the presence of the circle motif in diverse structures, especially in the doorway of the building, this research aimed to discuss the reasons behind the frequent use of the circle motif in combination with other decorative motifs, and inscriptions. It also aimed to seek its implications as used merely in Ilkhanid buildings, especially tombs and to identify its symbolic meaning and its relationship with the changing religious structure of the Mongol Sultans. This study tried to answer this question: what was the reason for using the circle motif, especially in decorating the doorways of some Ilkhanid building? The initial assumption was that the circle motif was one of the main bases for designing geometric motifs for decoration in the post-Islamic era, including a combination of various religious and cultural meanings. Findings and ResultsThe circle motif, which in some Ilkhanid buildings acquired a delicacy of "Shamseh" had all three referential dimensions of the sign in Peirce's framework. In its visual manifestation, the circle represented celestial bodies, especially the sun and the moon, which were considered God in religious beliefs since the beginning of human civilization. Over time, the sun was recognized as the observing eye of the sky God, and the circle became a symbol of both the sky and the sun. Due to its circular form, which had no beginning or end, the circle became a symbol of the repeatable structure of time and the infinity of the universe. In mystical beliefs such as Buddhism and Islamic Sufism, the cycles of time and life, depicted as the combination of concentric circles, implied the stages of man's journey towards spirituality and ultimate tranquility in the presence of the Creator. These concepts were mixed with the early religious beliefs of the Mongols, namely Shamanism and Buddhism along with Islam and Sufi Ideas later. As a result, symbolic motifs were used in different ways in the decoration of buildings from this period. A motif such as the circle, despite the very old in the history of human culture and art, was used in this period in pair in the doorways of buildings (related to religion and Sufism) or as a dominant motif in the walls and crescents under the doorways. Its usage was in a way that in previous and subsequent periods this kind of combination of the circle motif was not observed in the decoration of buildings.ConclusionThe following results, obtained from this research, clarify the special use of circle motif in the doorway and dome chamber of tombs built during the Mongol Ilkhanid era in Iran:The earliest groups of Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan practiced shamanistic beliefs and considered Genghis as the embodiment of the sky god. A number of Ilkhanid sultans were Buddhists and considered circles and mandalas as the most important symbolic motifs of Buddhism--reflecting the cycle of life and the hierarchy of achieving spirituality and spiritual ascension. It was figured out that the usage of sun-shaped circle in these buildings was related to the conversion of leading sultans including Ghazan Khan and Oljaitu to Islam, to the presence of the circle in Islamic decorations, to popular Sufism at the time since it was used to decorate the tombs of the elders Sufists and their Khanqahs.In the path of Islamic mysticism and Sufism, the circle was considered the compass point of existence and the unity of presence; hence the special use of this motif in the tombs of Sufi and Shiite Sheikhs was explained.Moreover, the relationship of the circle with the sky and the protective, watchful eye of the God/gods demonstrated a cultural interaction between the early, ancient beliefs of the Mongols and their religious practices after conversion to Islam and Sufism.Finally, the pair of circles used at the entrance of the building was considered a symbol of the spiritual power of the sky and a repellent of the filth and evil, a protector protecting the people of the Khanqah and the soul of the owner of the tomb from evil. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115128.html IntroductionArabesque (Eslimi), as one of the most significant decorative elements in Iranian and Islamic art, is an abstract, interlaced motif characterized by spiraling, rotating patterns that are grounded in a precise geometric order. Known as Eslimi (derived from “Islam”) and Arabesque (Arab-like), this motif is typically depicted without a clearly defined beginning or end and often organized around a circular axis, conveying symbolic religious concepts such as eternity and the representation of paradise. The origins of Eslimi can be traced back to ancient Iranian art, with its earliest manifestations appearing on ceramic artifacts as early as the 6th millennium B.C. Initially inspired by animal-based forms such as the curved horns of a wild goat and serpentine shapes, it gradually evolved to incorporate vegetal elements, including stems and leaves. During the first millennium B.C., and under the influence of other civilizations, Eslimi acquired a more defined structure, ultimately reaching its peak of development during the Sasanid era. In the Islamic era, it was revitalized through formal and conceptual transformations, integrated with the Kufic script and religious concepts and subsequently secured a distinguished status in manuscript illumination (Tazhib) and ornamental painting (Tash'ir).Research MethodThis study employs a historical approach and utilizes a descriptive-analytic methodology, primarily relying on documentary and library-based data. The samples were purposefully selected from ceramic and metal artifacts, prioritizing continuity of motifs and formal affinity, as these categories offer the most substantial information due to their abundance, adequate documentation, and suitability for precise formal analysis. The focus on the period from ancient Iran to the end of the Seljuk era was justified by the importance of this temporal span in the formation and consolidation of the Eslimi (Arabesque) motif in Iranian art. The study is structured around two fundamental questions: How can the origins and developmental trajectory of the Eslimi motif, in terms of both form and content, be explained within Iranian art from antiquity to the end of the Seljuk era?What common and distinctive factors characterize the depiction of this motif in both ancient Iranian and Islamic periods?Given the diversity of decorative motifs in the early Islamic era, the analysis was confined to ceramic and metal works. The data were analyzed qualitatively, with a focus on sample examination of visual elements, compositional structures, and symbolic meanings. The findings remained open to revision in light of future archaeological discoveries or newly documented artifacts.Research FindingsIn Iranian art, the Eslimi motif originated from representational forms but gradually evolved through the processes of abstraction and stylization, ultimately transforming into a fully non-figurative, abstract form. This abstract quality enabled Eslimi to encompass a wide functional range, from a simple ornamentation to complex symbolic expressions, to the underlying geometric framework of entire compositions. In certain instances, it functioned as the foundational geometric structure of pictorial and artistic works. The precise source of the motif’s formative structure could not be determined with certainty. The twisting of the branches and foliage of trees, such as the vine and pine, and plants, including the lotus and the acanthus leaf, constituted a group of vegetal motifs employed in both ancient Iranian and Islamic art, among which the vine appeared to be the most probable source. From another perspective, certain Eslimi patterns could also be interpreted as purely geometric constructs—that is, the products of the artist’s imagination without any direct reference to nature. Furthermore, an animal-based origin for the motif, particularly in relation to the curvature of animal horns, was also a plausible possibility. The spiral form, which revealed the geometric basis of these motifs and was regarded as a sacred configuration in Christian and Islamic art, had a far more ancient lineage in Iranian artistic traditions, predating both religions. This motif, in its altered and developed form, was incorporated into Islamic art, and it was found out that, owing to its association with the word “Islam”, it eventually came to be designated as Eslimi.  Moreover, the use of the term “Arabesque” or “Arab-like”, common in foreign sources, is incorrect, as the motif hasd no inherent connection to Arab art. Table 1 summarizes the formative factors and design principles of this motif across two historical periods under study.Table 1: Factors Influencing the Depiction of the Eslimi Motif in Iranian Art from Ancient Iran to the Seljuk PeriodFactorsPre-IslamicIslamicMythologyPresence in illustrations related to mythological narratives, particularly in representations of the Tree of LifeThe Tree of Life: employed in the illustration of mythological narratives in the the ShāhnāmaReligionsIncorporation into funerary and ritual artifacts, reflecting the motif’s religious significance; its deployment in sacred narratives, such as those associated with Mithraic (Mehr-worship) traditions, and the continuity of these sacred concepts into early Islamic visual representations of the Ṭūbā TreeThe Ṭūbā Tree: reflecting influences from neighboring religious traditions and the participation of non-Muslim artists in its artistic representationPopular beliefs and religious notionsBeliefs in divine blessing (barakah) and fertility, symbolized through animal elements such as the ram and the wild goat as well as vegetal motifs like the wheat stalk, as the symbols of abundance, fertility, and productivityContinuity of ancient Iranian artistic tradition through the incorporation of pre-Islamic animal and vegetal motifs such as the wild goat (ibex) and wheat stalks, and, in some cases, the direct inclusion of the Kufic inscription “barakah” (blessing); vegetal motifs frequently appeared in conjunction with hybrid or fantastical animals, often associated with divination, astrology, and prognosticationOther ethnic groups and civilizationsEgypt, Assyria, and GreeceChinaFrom a historical perspective, the origins of the Eslimi motif in Iranian art could be traced back to the 6th millennium B.C. as used on ceramic and metal artifacts. Initially inspired by animal-based forms such as the horns of the wild goat, the motif gradually evolved during the 5th millennium B.C. to incorporate vegetal elements, including stems and leaves. During the Islamic period, the Eslimi motif underwent significant transformation, particularly through its integration with Kufic epigraphic inscriptions, and symbolized concepts such as divine unity (tawḥīd), eternity, and spiritual aspects of religion. Throughout its long history, the motif evolved under the influence of various factors, including mythology, religious traditions, popular beliefs, and intercultural interactions with neighboring civilizations. Consequently, it emerged as a unifying visual element in the Islamic art. The evolutionary trajectory of the Eslimi motif in Iranian art, from antiquity to the early Islamic era, demonstrated that certain decorative forms originating in pre-Islamic Iran persisted, despite the extensive temporal span and religious transformation. This continuity underscored the resilience and the enduring symbolic potency of the motif’s form and content. In the art of Islamic era, the Eslimi motif assumed new configurations through processes such as recomposition, integration, and formal repetition, thereby serving as the generative basis for various ornamental systems, particularly in the arts of manuscript illumination (Tazhib) and ornamental painting (Tash'ir). ConclusionThe findings indicated that the primary origin of the Eslimi motif lied in natural and animal-based forms dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. By the 5th millennium B.C., it evolved into a more complex configuration through the integration of vegetal motifs. In the first millennium B.C., under the influence of Egypt, Assyria, and Greek civilizations, the motif acquired a more stabilized structure, ultimately reaching its developmental peak during the Sasanid period. The continuation of this motif into the artistic traditions of the early Islamic period, particularly during the Seljuk era, contributed to the development of manuscript illumination (Tazhib) and ornamental painting (Tash'ir). The integration of Eslimi designs with geometric patterns and circular structures not only generated innovative formal arrangements but also conveyed sacred and metaphysical concepts such as the divine unity of God and the order of creation within Islamic artistic expression. Influential factors such as mythology, religious traditions, popular beliefs, and intercultural interactions with neighboring civilizations, the presence of symbolic elements (e.g., the sacred tree), and theological notions (e.g., eternity and the visualization of paradise), all played a significant role in the emergence and continuity of the motif. Ultimately, the Eslimi motif emerged as a profound symbol of cosmic unity and divine order within Islamic art. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115197.html Introduction Mi’raj-nāmas are among the most significant categories of illustrated manuscripts in the Islamic world, and over centuries, they have inspired Iranian, Ottoman, and Indian painters. The narrative of the Prophet’s Ascension holds a prominent place in Persian literature in both prose and verse sources—including Nizami’s Khamsa— and conveys themes related to the celestial journey of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). This deeply rooted pictorial tradition, which reached its peak during the Safavid era, not only shaped the compositional strategies and narrative methods of Iranian painters but also through cultural exchanges, influenced Mughal art in India and Ottoman illustration. The continuation of these interactions transformed the visual representation of the Mi’raj across Islamic lands into a base of pictorial adaptations and stylistic transformations. Within this context, reverse-glass painting emerged as a new, popular art form that developed through interaction with Iranian folk culture and became a medium for expressing religious beliefs over the past two centuries. Simple but meaningful motifs were inscribed onto glass, and self-taught, non‑academic artists such as Mirza Iskandar established religious iconography in the format of reverse‑glass paintings. Although Mirza Iskandar’s Mi’raj painting shares fundamental features with classic miniatures, they are distinguished with certain innovations in the representation of specific figures and symbolic elements. Materials and Methods The present research is qualitative in method, employing a descriptive–analytic approach and relying on library sources. The research corpus included religious iconography, relevant religious and literary texts, and a selection of Mi’raj paintings from the Safavid to the post‑Qajar eras; the research sample was purposefully selected. This study aimed to provide an intertextual reading of visual elements in Mirza Iskandar’s Mi’raj painting and to answer two main questions: what intertextual relations can be identified between the visual elements of Mirza Iskandar’s Mi’rāj painting and the Mi’rāj iconography found in the earlier and later illustrated traditions? and which nonvisual pre‑texts contributed to the formation of this work? The subsidiary questions focused on identifying the religious themes and beliefs reflected in Mirza Iskandar’s reverse‑glass painting, and the visual strategies employed by the artist to convey these beliefs. Results and Findings The findings indicated that the extra-textual reading of the artwork rested upon four axes: the social context, the author (artist), the subject matter, and the hypertexts. An examination of the social context revealed that the tradition of Mi’raj illustration emerged in the early Islamic period in accordance with religious beliefs, flourished under the Timurid, and reached a symbolic and ritualistic phase during the Safavid era. In the Qajar period, with the spread of the religious beliefs, constitutional transformations, the popularity of lithographic printing, and the spread of Parde‑negārī, a popular style known as khiyālī‑negārī gained prominence, of which reverse‑glass painting was a significant manifestation. From the perspective of authorship, this work of art is attributed to Mirza Iskandar—also known as “Iskandar‑e Sabz”— the student of Shazdeh Afsar and a skilled artist in oil painting and shading techniques. After becoming acquainted with Mirza Abbas Shisheh‑Negar, he turned to the field of reverse‑glass. The establishment of his booth in the Majma’ al‑Sana’i in Tehran played an important role in the flourishing of reverse‑glass painting in the capital. The subject matter was drawn from two Qur’anic chapters, namely Isra’ and Najm and grounded in Islamic and Shi’i narratives. Central elements of the narrative include the Prophet’s Ascension, the witnessing of divine signs, and the symbolic presence of Imam Ali. Within the hypertextual dimension, it became evident that several later images of Mi’raj—especially the work of Mohammad Farahani—were influenced by this painting in terms of composition, color, and scene selection although there were differences in details of illumination, facial features, and arrangement. Regarding intratextual elements, the reverse‑glass oil technique and its inverted execution demonstrated Mirza Iskandar’s technical skill. The spiral composition and upward movement of the narrative directly referenced Timurid and Safavid Mi’raj illustrations. The luminous halo of the Prophet and its symbolic linkage to the lion motif created a symbolic and Shi’i concept. The color scheme featured indigo blue, gold, green, and Qajar brown, and the iconography included the Prophet with a veiled face, Gabriel bearing a vexillum, ten winged angels, and a hybrid depiction of Buraq marked by Iranian, Islamic, and Mughal influences. The twelve figures alluded symbolically to the Twelve Imams. The significance of this investigation lied in its ability to reveal the reciprocal interplay of art and text, thereby offering a deeper understanding of Qajar religious art.   Conclusion Mirza Iskandar’s reverse‑glass painting is grounded in a network of Iranian pictorial pre‑texts, the most significant of which was the spiral compositions of Sultan‑Muhammad and the illustrations of the Shiraz Khamsa 915 AH/1509AD. The addition of elements such as peacock wings and tail to the Buraq pattern reflects Mughal influence, while the simplified facial rendering corresponds to Qajar iconography as practiced by Isma’il Jalāyer. The simplification of the scene, the elimination of details, and the emphasis on key visual signs reflect the influence of lithographic printing and large religious curtains. Altogether, the technical constraints of reverse‑glass painting, combined with its deep connections to religious texts and Shi’i narratives, have endowed this work with a distinctive, spiritual character. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115182.html Introduction The peak of mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in Iranian architecture is associated with the Qajar period. Its examples can be observed in palaces, Imamzadehs, and some luxurious houses. In Tehran, a vast area of the Shah-neshin and the hallways of historical houses are adorned with these decorations, reflecting the taste and artistry of the architects and craftsmen of that time. Despite numerous studies on mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in palaces and religious buildings, a systematic analysis of the form and motifs in the mirror work of residential houses in Tehran has been rarely explored. The overall aim of this study is to identify and analyze the formal characteristics and motifs of mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in the historical houses of Tehran during the Qajar era. To this end, samples from ten historical houses in Tehran that incorporate mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in their interior and exterior designs have been selected, aiming to analyze the visual features and motifs used in various spaces of the houses and to provide a comprehensive perspective on the status and diversity of this art in residential architecture. Research Method The method of this study is descriptive-analytic, conducted with the aim of examining the shapes and motifs used in the mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) of historical houses in Tehran during the Qajar era. In this context, various types of motifs and geometric structures, decorative arrays, and common patterns in the mirror work of this period were analyzed and classified. Data were collected through library studies, the examination of photographs, archival documents, as well as direct field studies. Sampling was conducted purposefully, and ten historical houses were selected including Vossough, Soltan Begum, Imam Jom'e, Moghadam, Fakhr-al-Moluk, Mirza Shafi, Zorofchi, Timurtash, Masoudiyeh Mansion, and Qavam House (Abgineh). The field method involved photographing historical residential sites from the Qajar period in Tehran and interviewing mirror work craftsmen, both of which played a significant role in the better understanding of the process as well as preserving this art. Research Findings The findings indicate that mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in the historical houses of Tehran during the Qajar period was primarily utilized in the Shah-nishin sections, reception halls, winter rooms (on the northern and western sides), and in some cases, in summer rooms. In the Vossough house, a rare example is observed where the mirror hall is located in the summer section, contributing to temperature regulation along with wind catchers. In the houses of Vossough, Imam Jom'e, Soltan Begum, and Mirza Shafi, the overall mirror decorations were applied to ceilings, walls, and wainscoting, combined with wall paintings and stucco work. A noteworthy point in the Imam Jom'e house was the existence of eastern and western alcoves that, by opening partitions, could transform into a large hall for hosting guests. In contrast, the Masoudiyeh Mansion (Divankhaneh) and the Timurtash house mainly featured mirror decorations on the ceilings of the halls, with less seen on the walls. However, Zorofchi house had the least amount of these decorations. In terms of form, the vase motif was the most diverse and frequently repeated pattern among the samples, executed in forms such as bulbous vases, two-tiered, pedestal vases, jeweled designs, and combinations with side motifs. Following that, toranj, shames motifs as well as arabesque and Khatayi motifs appeared in simple and combined forms. Among the geometric motifs, six-pointed stars, eight-pointed stars, dodecagons, whirls, wicker patterns, and ten-tendril knots had the highest frequency. The motifs of ‘Khorshid Khanom’ were executed in three houses (Moghadam, Fakhr-al-Moluk, and Imam Jom'e) using the reverse glass painting technique, reflecting the connection of mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) with the mystical concepts of unity and light. In the realm of specific motifs, the motifs of cups and candlesticks were prominently present in the houses of Mirza Shafi, Vossough, Soltan Begum, and Imam Jom'e, executed in five and seven branches, some of which held special significance due to their association with Jewish symbols. Animal motifs were only seen in a few samples (the house of Soltan Begum and parts of Moghadam and Imam Jom'e) and had the least frequency among decorative patterns. Frame designs were usually executed uniformly around the room, and in Zorofchi house, a one-piece star-shaped frame creates a unique example. Overall, the findings indicated that the mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) of Qajar houses possessed a diversity of motifs, structural complexity, and multi-functionality, playing a fundamental role in shaping the visual identity of the space.   Conclusion The results have indicated that mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) in the historical houses of Tehran during the Qajar period was one of the most prominent decorative elements of residential architecture and served a function beyond mere beautification. These decorations have extended from ceilings and walls down to the floors, with a nearly equal use of plaster and mirror. The combination of wood and mirror has also been beautifully employed. In some of these houses, examples of colored stucco work combined with mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) have been observed. In addition to these decorations, paintings beneath and above the mirrors, including floral and bird motifs, animals, and "Khorshid Khanom", have also been evident in the decoration of the houses. The mirror-work (Āyeneh-kāri) of muqarnas has also been added to the decorative ensemble. In terms of motif representation, vase motifs, Arabesque motifs, Khatayi motifs, Shamse motifs, rosettes, and geometric knots have been identified as the dominant decorative system. These motifs, in the form of organized and sometimes complex arrays have reflected the capabilities of Qajar craftsmen in composition, symmetry, rhythm, and visual harmony, skillfully placing geometric and botanical structures together. The diversity of vase motifs and geometric knots has had the most usage, while animal motifs have had the least presence. Additionally, the motifs of "Khorshid Khanom" and candlesticks reflect the connection of mirror work with symbolic concepts of light, purity, guardianship, and sanctity. These motifs and decorative frames not only play a structural and functional role in the interior architecture but also have a significant aesthetic impact on the visual space of the building. The precise combination of geometric shapes, Islamic motifs, flowers, and animal motifs, along with techniques of repetition and mirroring, help create a harmonious and pleasant rhythm in the space. In addition to their visual richness, these decorative elements evoke a sense of elegance, luxury, and harmony in architecture. Furthermore, the play of light and its reflection in the mirror work makes the motifs appear more vibrant and dynamic, adding depth and dimension to the space. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_114996.html Introduction Badi' al-Zaman al-Jazari was a scientistof sixth century AH (12th century AD). He lived in the Diyarbakir region and illustrated 50 innovative and complementary designs for automated devices in his book. He is known as the father of robotics and a pioneer of mechanical engineering in the golden age of Islam; however a large part of his creativity and innovationsin his designs has been ignored. Examining al-Jazari'sdesign process from the perspective of both mechanical engineering and industrial design reveal new dimensions of this Muslim innovator’s creativity. A look at his designs provides a new understanding of the turning point and development of his evolved style of product design. About 850 years ago, Jazari accomplished the most appropriate product designingin at least fifty devicesthrough a careful combination oftwomajor facets of product designing— i.e. mechanism and creativity. Materials and Methods The method of this research is descriptive-analytic and uses a qualitative approach to examine the process of product designing as carried out by al-Jazari in a combined lock. The method of data collection is the library based and conducted through direct observation and the evaluation of the product. The population under study is the devices designed by Jazari; the combined lock was examined as a specimen. This product was a coded lock that uses the consonance of twelve letters to secure the lid of a special chest and lock it. This lock, which was installed on special chests, could complete the safest storage facilities for protecting documents and treasures. This study focused on the combined lockto analyze it comprehensively. The main question of the research was to explore how the scientific and artistic process of product designing can be evaluated in the invention of the Jazari’s combined lock. Results and Findings What is obtained from the analogy of product design processes in mechanical engineering and industrial design is generally summarized in the field of expertise. Both sciences focus on responding to a need by creating a response. However, the response in mechanical engineer is to design and create a mechanism and system so that a mechanism can be tested. In industrial designer is to design an identity for industrial products. This is done with the aim of creating and enhancing the most effective connection between humans and industrial products. The index of measuring is form, aesthetics, ergonomics, meaning and human values, the degree of effective connection with the user, and the share of success in the commercial market. In this research, al- Jazari’s combined lock was evaluated. Al-Jazari’s had system included a central hub connected to four locks, each of which consisted of three disks. This system had millions of possible states that were practically impossible for someone who did not know the code to decipher it; this feature made a masterpiece of this lock in terms of security equipment. Afterwards,al-Jazari proceeded to build a complete and functional prototype of his device. He, then, provided detailed descriptions of the product and used numerous images to facilitate the understanding of its appearance, structure, components, parts, and intricate mechanisms. These images not only increased the visual appeal of the product but also made it easier for the audience to understand the function and construction of the device. This method of documentation demonstratedal-Jazari’s scientific and engineering approach as well as his special attention to details and knowledge transfer. Conclusion Responding to the need of protecting valuable documents and assets, al-Jazari succeeded in designing a combined lock, offering an extremely safe and secure product. Although this innovation was formed based on the completion of the ideas and achievements of his predecessors, it became a unique work with creative development and personal ingenuity. Henot only ensured the physical security and psychological peace of the owner of the valuable boxes but also paid attention to the aesthetic appeals of the product. The use of forms inspired by nature and plant and animal motifs in the design of the components, the combination of square and circle forms in the mandala pattern that symbolizes the connection between earth and sky as well as the cycle of evolution, and the use of the symbolic number 12 in cryptographic situations are proofs of this precision and elegance. Like any outstanding designer, he has created a systematic and structured product by combining engineering methods, semiotics, and aesthetics, which reflects his deep understanding of the principles of design and engineering. Although he lived about 850 years ago, the process of designing and writing the descriptions and details he covered in his book is similar to the scientific and artistic process of product designing today and has inspired many designers after him. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115131.html IntroductionIran is regarded as one of the most important cradles of pottery in the Islamic world. With the advent of Islam and a cultural shift from ostentation toward simplicity, certain functions of costly metal vessels were transferred to ceramics, including lustreware. Among the pottery-producing centers, the city of Kashan attained a distinguished position in the development of lustreware. Accordingly, the present study seeks to explain the factors influencing the preservation and development of Kashan lustreware through a futures-studies approach. Today, this art faces challenges such as the decline in master artisans, limitations in knowledge transmission, shifts in audience preferences, and competition with industrial products. Under such circumstances, futures studies can serve as an effective tool for analyzing the current situation. Dator’s approach, with its focus on the trends, events, images of the future, and actions, provides a framework for understanding possible futures. As an example, the works of Abbas Akbari, selected as an active artist in this technique in the city of Kashan, were examined to analyze the connection between tradition and innovation in the contemporary context.Materials and MethodsThis qualitative research is applied in terms of its purpose and was conducted using a descriptive–analytic method, with its data collected through documents and observations. The data analysis carried out through a futures‑studies approach. This approach was based on James Allen Dator’s components, which identified trends, events, images, and actions for the purpose of outlining future scenarios. Dator emphasizes the importance of studying the future and believes that people should be prepared to confront various possible futures. Given that the focus of this research was on the city of Kashan, among contemporary artists, the works of an artist active in the production and promotion of lustreware in Kashan were selected for study. This paper seeks to enhance preparedness for shaping desirable futures and aims through examining trends, events, and related images and actions so as to provide appropriate solutions by presenting compatible scenarios. This requires creative thinking and interdisciplinary collaboration so that effective strategies for preserving culture and identity can be offered.Results and FindingsThe components of Dator in this research include various factors, the most important of which in the trends and events section are as follows:Cultural FactorsReligious and ideological influencesSymbolism and motifsIntercultural influencesSocial FactorsThe emergence of the middle classThe reflection of social lifeEconomic FactorsEconomic constraintsTrade and commerceRecession and revivalTechnological FactorsLustreware techniqueUse of nanoparticlesInnovation in materials             In the actions and images section, which follows the previous two components, the scenarios derived from the analysis of factors influencing the preservation and development of Kashan lustreware were presented based on Dator’s components and the identified drivers.a) Continued growth scenario: the growth scenario refers to a future in which existing trends continue without fundamental structural changes, and the system that reliesg on increased production, consumption, and expansion of activities, follows a path of quantitative development.b) Collapse scenario: this scenario depicts a future in which Kashan lustreware will gradually disappear due to the lack of support, declining interest among younger generations, and the competition with industrial products, becoming limited to a museum‑based or obsolete art.c) Transformation or discipline scenario: this scenario encompasses sustainability and standardization, technological innovation, specialized and global markets, institutional support, and international cooperation. In this future, Kashan lustreware is recognized as an authentic, rare, and simultaneously modern and global cultural–artistic product. This art, while preserving its historical roots, attains a stable and valuable position among both specialized and general audiences through innovation and intelligent presence in global markets. This scenario is more desirable than the previous two.            Based on Allen Dator’s components, the works of Abbas Akbari illustrated the imitation of past works, innovation in design, and new applications. As mentioned in the text, Alan Caiger‑Smith and Greg Daly both had emphasized the balance between tradition and innovation in Akbari’s works. This balance transgotmed Akbari into a pioneer in the production and promotion of lustreware. In particular, the use of ta’liq script in a visual manner without emphasis on conceptual content demonstrated a modern approach to traditional art that can attract global audiences.            Therefore, It can be noted that Kashan lustreware is highly dependent on maintaining a balance between preserving traditional authenticity and embracing modern innovations. The transformation scenario, with its focus on technology, global marketing, and international collaboration, can turn this art into a global brand, while the discipline scenario, with its emphasis on sustainability and specialized markets, prevents its extinction.ConclusionLustreware is not only an artistic achievement but also a reflection of cultural, social, economic, and technological conditions in Iran. Based on the analyses conducted in this research, it was determined that four major cultural, economic, social, and technological factors are evident in Kashan pottery. The explanation of these four factors based on Dator’s components is presented according to the items shown in Table (1).Table 1: Explanation of the factors of Dator on Kashan's Lustre PotteryCultural EconomicTechnologicalSocialDimensionDisinterest in silver and gold objects; increased interest in pottery with diverse and authentic Iranian forms and patternsThe expensiveness of gold and silver utensils and tendency to cheaper utensils, the growth of online markets; increasing demand for luxury productsImproved glazing methods; Using digital designThe entry of Chinese products and responding to European tastes; Excessive import of cheap, high-quality products; Reduced craftsmen; Enhanced participation of women and youthTrendGlobal registration of the Iranian Lustre Pottery technique with UNESCO; holding international exhibitionsReducing export restrictions; holding local festivals; Providing bank’s loansCreating a dedicated online platform; Using advanced kilnsHolding academic training courses; Reverse migration of youthEventCollaborating with museums; holding the Lustre Pottery festivalForming cooperatives; branding using exquisite packaging; increasing national incomeEstablishing a glaze laboratory; Using 3D printing of moldsEducating the new generation; holding media campaigns; attracting touristsActionRe-promoting theLustre Pottery art as a symbol of Iranian identityPrivate sector investment and branding of small workshopsProducing new utensils using nanotechnology, smart kilns with precise temperature control, and digital design of traditional motifs, using 3D scanning to reconstruct historical Lustre Pottery worksCreating Kashan’s pottery production technology park, continuing pottery production in small workshopsVisionBased on this, some strategies for the development of Kashan lusterware pottery are presented in Table (2).Table 2: Proposed actions for the development and preservation of Kashan lusterwareDescriptionsExampleFactorsActionsRedesigning traditional motifs such as: Arabesque and Khatai (floral) with modern useProducing creative utensils in Kashan’s workshops (such as Abbas Akbari's works)Cultural: Maintaining identitySocial: Increasing society's tendency to identity-based productsEconomic: Luxury goods marketTechnological: Design softwareReviving original motifs and forms with a contemporary approachImproving the quality of glazing and firing with modern kilnsSpecialized research on Lustre Pottery glazeCultural: Maintaining authenticitySocial: Promoting public awareness of traditional artsEconomic: Reducing costsTechnological: Using advanced kilnsDeveloping technology for glaze production and firing kilnsHolding workshops and training courses for the new generationHolding Lustre Pottery technique workshops in KashanCultural: Cultural transmissionSocial: Enhancing community participation in learning and revitalizing indigenous artsEconomic: Job creationTechnology: Digital educationTeaching and promoting pottery skillsOffering products on online platforms and in international exhibitions Selling Lustre Pottery dishes as elegant corporate giftsCultural: Introducing the Iranian artSocial: Increasing public demand for authentic artistic productsEconomic: Increasing exportsTechnology: Online salesMarketing and BrandingDesigning applied utensils and dishes inspired by historical formsUsing hunting ground-decorated table services in traditional restaurantsCultural: Adapting to modern needsSocial: Promoting the daily use of traditional art in lifestyleEconomic: Increasing salesTechnology: MoldingManufacturing applied utensils with traditional formsReproducing historical utensils and dishes with the support of cultural institutionsReconstructing and replicating Kashan’s Lustre Pottery utensils and dishesCultural: Enhancing public awarenessSocial: Strengthening the sense of social belonging to cultural heritageEconomic: Attracting capitalTechnology: 3D scanningCollaborating with museums and cultural centers The case study of this research, the lusterware works of Abbas Akbari, as one of the most prominent contemporary productions, demonstrates that this historical technique still possesses a high capacity for continuity, growth, and innovation. The creative re-creation of past motifs and forms, alongside the efforts of this artist and other practitioners active in this field to teach and introduce lusterware at the national and international levels, attests to the possibility of a dynamic and meaningful promotion of this art. The identified factors—strengthening educational infrastructures, utilizing modern technologies, developing digital marketing, and institutional support—can outline a sustainable path for the future of Kashan lusterware. Although the future is always accompanied by uncertainty, by reliance on historical experiences, the analysis of current trends enables the provision of effective strategies for safeguarding and developing the rich Iranian cultural heritage. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115424.html Motifs in traditional arts narrate symbolic and hidden concepts that generally originate from the artist's imagination based on his lived experience. According to Bachelard’s approach,, imagination is the source of existence and creator of an artwork. According to Bachelard's theory, an original and creative art work inherently uses a kind of artistic imagination related to the four elements of nature. Therefore, imaginative criticism is a suitable tool for evaluating the extent to which the aforementioned elements are represented in an artwork. The problem is that if we consider the Iranian hand-woven rug as an artwork, what is the philosophy of creation and the existential source of designs and motifs, its basis? According to Bachelar's imaginative criticism, the existential root of all motifs in an artwork should be sought in the four elements of nature, which have been deposited by God in a way in the artist's existence. Based on this, the research evaluates the symbolic expression of the images of the four elements in 16 panels of hand-woven Baluch nomadic rugs. Also, this study is trying to provide an appropriate answer to the following question: What are the visual and symbolic components of the motifs related to the four elements in the aforementioned rugs? The results show that the "creative imagination" of the Baluch weaver is related to the elements of nature, which has led to the formation and production of "original and far from imitation and repetition" visual images. Furthermore, although traces of the four elements can be observed behind the motifs of all the rugs, the greatest emphasis is on the vital element of water. This result is due to the pre-Islamic Zoroastrian religious beliefs of the Baluch people and also the lack of water in the geographical climate of Baluchistan. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115425.html Textiles have long been among the most essential and widely used necessities of human life. As significant archaeological materials, they often deteriorate over time due to the inherent instability of their raw materials, resulting in a relative scarcity of studies on ancient textiles. Since the early centuries of Islam, many textiles have included inscriptions that serve as primary historical sources, reflecting the social, political, and economic conditions of various eras. Consequently, the archaeological study of inscribed textiles can address numerous historical inquiries. The National Museum of Iran houses one of the most unique collections of textiles. Its Islamic section contains over 200 pieces of textiles, carpets and rugs, dating from the early Islamic period to the present. In the present study, 19 samples of inscribed textiles dating from the 10th to the 14th century AH were examined using direct observation and documentation methods. The aim was to analyze the techniques used for inscribing these textiles. This research addresses the following questions: What were the main inscription techniques used on Islamic textiles? How were these techniques executed, and how did they relate to the material type and function of the textiles? Methodologically, the study is fundamental in purpose and descriptive-analytical in approach. Findings indicate three principal inscription techniques: weaving (6examples), embroidery (6examples), and printing/painting (7examples). By correlating these techniques with the type of fiber, weaving technique, script style, and thematic content, the textiles’ probable functions can be classified into three categories: religious, political, and everyday use. The analysis reveals that cotton or linen textiles were generally inscribed using the pen technique, while silk textiles often featured woven inscriptions. Embroidered inscriptions were applied across various fabric types and materials. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115426.html Balochi embroidery, as one of the indigenous and deeply rooted arts of Balochistan, is characterized by symbolic diversity, distinctive stitching styles, and richly decorative motifs that reflect centuries of cultural practice. The extant examples housed in the Powerhouse Museum, Australia, and attributed to Pakistani Balochistan, exhibit technical and structural features that closely resemble the embroidery style traditionally practiced in the village of Kalleh Gan, Iran. This study therefore aims to authenticate the origins of these works, identify their cultural and ritual functions, and analyze the structural and technical patterns of the Saok Porkar stitch, while also exploring similarities and differences between the two traditions and examining their underlying causes in relation to historical, social, and cultural factors. The research addresses three central questions: 1. What are the structural and technical similarities and differences of the Saok Porkar stitch between the Kalleh Gan samples and those in the Powerhouse Museum? 2. What are the reasons for these observed similarities and differences? 3. How credible is the claim of a Pakistani origin for the Powerhouse Museum's artifacts when compared with samples of Baloch embroidery from Kalleh Gan, Iran? The study employs a comparative methodology. The findings indicate that the Saok Porkar stitch in both the Kalleh Gan and Powerhouse Museum collections shares notable structural and technical similarities, including backstitch execution, counted-thread technique, and the repetition of the three-stitch motif. Nevertheless, differences are evident in motif composition, diversity, and color schemes. The results demonstrated that the discrepancy between the Siah-o-Spīt and Paraeez embroidery techniques on the museum specimens and the contemporary styles prevalent in Pakistani Balochistan indicates that the artifacts in the Powerhouse Museum originated from Kalleh Gan, Iran. Furthermore, certain motifs, such as the pomegranate, have evolved from serving as ritual symbols to fulfilling a purely aesthetic function. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115432.html Cultural interactions during different periods have led to the variety of motifs used in carpets of Khorasan and have caused these works to have an independent identity in terms of form and meaning. The dragon motif is one of the most numerous motifs in contemporary Khorasan carpets. Achieving a deeper understanding of it can greatly contribute to giving identity to Khorasan carpets. Accordingly, in this study the various concepts and forms of dragons have been examined from the perspective of ancient origination of form and meaning. The main questions of the present study are: How many types of dragons are there in contemporary Khorasan carpets? And what is the origin of the form and concept of the dragon motif based on ancient cultural information? This research examines 7 samples in an analytical-comparative method. Primary data was collected through field studies, documents, and internet sources. In this study, 21 suitable examples were selected for matching based on maximum diversity. The results of this study indicate that the history of the form of dragon images can be traced back to the fifth millennium BC in Iran. These diverse examples have continued to have various forms throughout history, including dragon-snake, winged dragon, two-legged, four-legged, or with appendages on the body. One of the special points of the examples under study is that, in one work, one can see both a positive and a negative dragon at the same time, which could indicate a new creation of the form and meaning of the dragon in the design of contemporary Khorasan carpets. Also, in these research, Iranian dragons can also be seen, and the small influence of China in the design of the form and the formation of the meaning of the dragon can be seen. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115516.html The Qashqai constitute a significant portion of Iran’s nomadic population and, in accordance with their nomadic way of life and cultural traditions, produce a wide variety of loom handwoven. The aim of the present study is to identify and introduce the cultural beliefs surrounding the production of loom hand-woven among the Qashqai of the Shahreza region in Isfahan Province. The main research problem concerns the gradual forgetting of rituals and ceremonies rooted in the indigenous and authentic culture of Iran’s nomadic communities, resulting from changes in lifestyle and the increasing prevalence of industrial and machine-made textiles in place of the continued production of traditional hand-wovens. Accordingly, the research questions focus on identifying the beliefs, behaviors, and cultural rituals associated with the production loom hand-woven textiles among the Qashqai nomads of the Shahreza region.This study is qualitative and was conducted using a descriptive–analytical approach, drawing on data obtained through participant observation in the field and in-depth ethnographic interviews with six local weavers. Content analysis of the interviews, along with participatory and field findings, indicates that the various stages of the processing and production chain of loom hand-woven among the Shahreza Qashqai are carried out within the nomadic community itself and are closely intertwined with the tribe’s ritual and cultural practices. In other words, understanding the symbolic meanings embedded in these loom hand-woven is not possible without comprehending the cultural connections and rituals accompanying their production. The findings show that all five stages of the production chain of loom hand-woven including wool shearing and fiber processing, preparation of weaving designs and patterns, warping, the weaving process, and finally cutting the finished hand-woven from the loom have served as a medium for the embodiment and continuity of the oral culture and ritual beliefs of the Shahreza Qashqai weaving community over time. https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115530.html Orosi windows are significant decorative elements of Qajar architecture that, despite having similar structures, differ in construction details, ornamentation, and execution influenced by the climatic, cultural, and artistic conditions of each region. Although limited in number, the cities of Hamedan and Kermanshah possess valuable examples of these elements. Accordingly, this study aims to comparatively examine the structural features, motifs, colors, and techniques of Qajar Orosi windows in these two cities to identify their similarities and differences. The main research questions are: What are the points of similarity and difference between the Qajar Orosi windows of Hamedan and Kermanshah in terms of motifs, color, and technique? And what are the technical and artistic characteristics of the window decorations under study?To answer these questions, a comparative visual analysis of the Orosi windows in the two cities was conducted, focusing on overall form, design and motifs, technique, frequency, glass color, orientation, and relation to the regional climate. The research method is fundamental, descriptive-analytical, with a comparative approach. Data were collected through library research and, notably, fieldwork including interviews and photography. The statistical population comprises buildings from the Qajar and early Pahlavi periods, including 7 structures in Hamedan and 12 in Kermanshah featuring Orosi windows.The results indicate that the dominant form of transoms in both cities is arched, and the three-leaf sash is the most frequent. The primary motifs in Hamedan and Kermanshah are, respectively, composite and arabesque designs, followed by geometric patterns in both cities. The most common techniques are frame-cutting and fabric-cutting combined with colored glass, applied mainly in transoms and sashes. White and red colors account for the largest proportion of colored glass. The greatest diversity in motifs and techniques dates back to the mid to late Qajar period; in later buildings, https://hsi.kashanu.ac.ir/article_115531.html In the final decades of the Qajar era, the discourse of Constitutionalism, centered on the master signifier of “freedom,” offered a new configuration of power relations, political institutions, and Iranian society. This shift in discursive space also manifested itself in cultural and artistic domains. Handicrafts, too, entered into certain relations with this space. The present descriptive-analytical article seeks to qualitatively analyze the relationship between handicrafts—particularly the medium of carpet weaving and the case study of the Baskerville Carpet—and the discourse of Constitutionalism. Drawing on Michel Foucault’s perspectives on discourse analysis, it asks: how did handicraft objects, in the process of articulating the themes of the Constitutional discourse, undergo formal and semantic ruptures and transform into instruments for representing identity, historical memory, and political action? Since discourse analysis concerns itself with how phenomena are constructed and deployed within an intertextual network of objects, subjects, relations, events, institutions, and knowledge/power systems, this framework provides the basis for inquiry.Findings show that handicrafts (especially carpet weaving) played a role in celebrating freedom-seeking figures and in representing Constitutionalist themes. The resemblance between the modes of presentation and imagery in Constitutional-era tiles and carpets, and those of photography—such as the focus on portraiture, realism, and the evocation of historical presence—indicates that some handicraft works of this period became tools for struggle, for representing modern concepts, and for participating in the public sphere. In other words, a rupture occurred in the function of handicrafts, through which the function of “freedom-seeking” emerged. Moreover, the inclusion of Latin script in the weaving of the Baskerville Carpet (as one of the earliest examples of a conscious break from the tradition of Persian-Arabic script in handicrafts) also signaled a transformation in the subject of the audience:new viewers who, through the act of seeing and reading, preserved the memory of Constitutional events.