The Feasibility of Making the Black Ink Based on the Common Instructions in Persian Calligraphy Treatises and the Practical Writing Test with Samples

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 M.A. in Islamic Art, Department of Islamic Art, Art University of Isfahan, Iran

2 Associate Professor, Department of Calligraphy and Persian Painting, Art University of Isfahan, Iran (Corresponding Author)

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
The necessity of using tools and materials which improve the speed and quality of writing has led to the creation of a material called ink. In Iran, ink has also been considered as a writing tool by calligraphers since long ago as showcased by different instructions in calligraphy treatises. One of the instructions, deployed as the basis of the samples of this study, is that “soot is as much as the alum, gall is as much as both, gum is as much as the three and, then, the power of elbows works”. The aim of this study is to make a practical ink which can be used in calligraphy in different proportionalities. This study tries to answer the question how it is possible to gain an appropriate ink based on the common instruction in calligraphy treatises. Accordingly, two kinds of Persian black inks were produced and tested in a practical writing test.
 
Research Method
This study first investigated the historical studies and methods of making the Persian black ink in calligraphy treatises; then, some samples were prepared. To do so, data were gathered from library studies and laboratories. The Persian black inks samples created for this study were of two kinds based on the common instruction “soot is as much as the alum, gall is as much as both, gum is as much as the three and then the power of elbows works”. These samples were examined in a practical writing test. Thus, the method is scientific-experimental. In making these samples, elements such as soot, gall, and gum were considered fixed. However, since alum is mentioned generally in common instructions without referring to its type, two kinds of alums were used in making these samples. By investigating treatises on calligraphy such as Medad al-Khotout, Adab-ol-Mashgh, Savad al-Khatt (Khatt va Savad), Joharriyeh, Kashf al-Sanaye, Adab al-Khatt, Holiyat-al Kottab, a treatise on paper and painting, Aowhal and Moshajjar Scripts, the poems of Emad ol-Kottab, Serat al-Sotour and also Golestan-e Honar which had mentioned the white, the Cypriot, the Turkish, the black, the Kermani, the red, the yellow and the Circumcision alums and Zameh, it turned out that those kinds of alums like the white, the Turkish, and the Cypriot alums were used more than the other kinds. Since the Turkish and the Cypriot alums with the chemical formula FeSO45H2O are, indeed, the very green alum (FeSO4·xH2O), two kinds of alums, fr including the green one (Iron (II) sulfate: FeSO4) and the white one (Al2 (SO4)3), were used in making these samples.
Research Findings
The black ink is a perdurable old material that human has used for writing, communication, and the transferring of thoughts and experiences throughout the world. Black inks can be classified into two common categories; the first category itself is divided into two groups: carbon inks and iron-gall inks. The second category is divided into three groups: carbon inks, iron-gall inks, and compound or mixed inks. Carbon inks are composed of carbon, water, and Arabic gum. In contrast, iron-gall inks are made of gallnut extract with Iron (II) sulfate. Combining carbon inks with iron-gall inks makes a compound or a mixed ink. The compound ink is the same ink which has been used from the past by calligraphers, especially in the Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar eras. It was also called the Persian black ink. The Iranians made Persian ink for the first time by mixing the carbon ink and the gall ink. It happened in the fourth century when Ibn Muqla added carbon to the common iron-gall ink. In Persian treatises on calligraphy, different instructions are mentioned for making the black ink. One of the most common ones, a couplet, is deployed in this research to investigate the feasibility of making ink.
 
Conclusion
The research has been carried out to assess the feasibility of making the practical ink which can be used in calligraphy. Four elements including soot, gall, gum, and alum were used in the production of samples. Soot, gall, and Arabic gum were fixed. However, as the kind of alum was not determined in the common instruction, two kinds of frequently discussed alums in calligraphy treatises were used: the white alum (Al2(SO4)3) in making sample L1 and the green alum (Iron (II) sulfate: FeSO4) in making sample L2. Therefore, the results suggested that these samples have the capability of writing in reed pens. The results of the practical writing test revealed that calligraphy with both samples on both handmade and glossy paper was possible. Thus, changing the sheet did not make any challenges for calligraphers. Also, conducting the practical writing test with different proportionalities, ranging from 3mm to 10mm, and different reed pens, such as Nastaliq, broken Nastaliq, Thuluth, and Muhaqqaq, showed both samples could be used with different proportionalities and reed pens. Although changing reed pens and proportionalities affected the writing quality of samples, both samples showed acceptable performance. Moreover, the results of the practical writing test demonstrated that the quality on ink taking and ink putting of sample L1 with white alum was better than sample L2 with green alum, but it had less elasticity. And, the darkness of sample L1 was purer than sample L2. In writing Shamarehs and Ersals, the first sample was higher in quality than the second sample.

Keywords

References

 
References
Botti, L., Mantovani, O. & Ruggiero, D. (2005). Calcium Phytate in the Treatment of Corrosion Caused by Iron Gall Inks: Effects on Paper. Restaurator-international Journal for The Preservation of Library and Archival Material, 26 (1), 44-62. Doi:10.1515/REST.2005.44.
Bukhari, D. M. (2016). Fava’ed al-Khotoot. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on Calligraphy and Related Arts (2rd ed., pp. 305–398). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
Bukhari, M. (2019). Fava’ed al-Khotoot. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The Art of the Book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 431–557). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Carvalho, D. N. (1904). Forty Centuries of Ink: Or a Chronological Narrative Concerning Ink and Its Backgrounds. New York: The Banks law Publishing Co.
Christiansen, T. (2017). Manufacture of Black ink in the Ancient Mediterranean. The Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists, No. 54, 167–195. Doi: 10.2143/BASP. 54.0.3239877
Christiansen, T., Cotte, M., de Nolf, W., Mouro, E., Reyes-Herrera, J., de Meyer, S., Vanmeert, F., Salvadó, N., Gonzalez, V., Lindelof, P. E., Mortensen, K., Ryholt, K., Janssens, K., & Larsen, S. (2020). Insights into the composition of ancient Egyptian red and black inks on papyri achieved by synchrotron-based microanalyses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117 (45), 27825–27835. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.2004534117
Cohen, Z. (2021). "Chapter 2 Writing Materials". In Composition Analysis of Writing Materials in Cairo Genizah Documents (pp. 36-52). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
Corregidor, V., Viegas, R., Ferreira, L. M., & Alves, L. C. (2019). Study of Iron Gall Inks, Ingredients and Paper Composition Using Non-Destructive Techniques. Heritage, 2 (4), 2691-2703. Doi: 10.3390/heritage2040166
Davids, T. (1860). The History of Ink, Including Its Etymology, Chemistry and bibliography. New York: Francis Hart & Co.
Dehkhoda, A. A. (1998). Dehkhoda Dictionary (Vol. 8, 2rd ed.). Tehran: University of Tehran Press [In Persian].
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2024, February 5). ink. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ink-writing-medium
Farahi, A. (1982). Nesab al-Sebyan (3rd ed.). Tehran: Ashrafi [In Persian].
Farahmand Boroujeni, H., Abed Esfahani, A., & Soltani, Z. (2015). Technical study and damage assessment of black inks used by contemporary calligraphers. Restoration and Architecture of Iran, No. 9, 103–119 [In Persian].
Farahmand Boroujeni, H., Soltani, Z., & Jokar, J. (2013). Comparative study of similarities and differences between ink and ḥibr in terms of preparation methods. Islamic Traditional Arts, 1 (2), 91–112 [In Persian].
Gettens, R. J., & Stout, G. L. (1947). Painting materials: a short encyclopedia. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Forth printing. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/PaintingMaterial/mode/2up.
Ghelichkhani, H. R. (2016). Treatises on calligraphy and related arts (2rd ed.). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
-----. (2022). Studying the authenticity of the treatise Midad al-Khotoot attributed to Mir Ali Heravi compared to the treatise Khatt va Savaad by Majnun Rafīqī. Art Research, No. 23, 73–82 [In Persian].
Haddadi, M. (2019). Control of iron-gall ink corrosion process using synthetic antioxidants BAH, BTH, TBHQ (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran [In Persian].
Heravi, M. A. (2016). Medad al-Khotout. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on calligraphy and related arts (2rd ed., pp. 1–14). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
-----. (2019). Medad al-Khotout. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.). The art of the book in Islamic civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 101–119). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
-----. (2020). Medad al-Khotout. In H. Fazayeli (Ed.), calligraphy instruction (15th ed., pp. 370–373). Tehran: Soroush [In Persian].
Holiyat-al Kottab. (2019). In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The art of the book in Islamic civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 609–617). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi. [In Persian]
Hosseini, A. (2019). Ink making and bookbinding. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The art of the book in Islamic civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 675–695). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi. [In Persian]
Khosravi Bizhaem, F. (2006).  Technology and pathology of traditional inks and protective strategies (Unpublished master’s thesis). Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran [In Persian].
Lamei Rashti, M., Aghaali Gol, D., Khosravi, F., Olyaee, P., Baghizadeh, A., & Shokoohi, F. (2007). Elemental analysis of some samples of ink and paper from the Qajar period using proton beam microscopy. Nameh-ye Baharestan, 6 (1), 261–264 [In Persian].
Mashhadi, S. A. (2016). Serat al-Sotour. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on calligraphy and related arts (2rd ed., pp. 15–30). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
-----. (2019). Serat al-Sotour. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The art of the book in Islamic civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 81–100). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Mayel Heravi, N. (2019). The Art of the book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed.). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Mert, E. (2008). A comparative study on chemical characterization of different ink ingredients used in ancient ornamented manuscripts (Unpublished Master of science thesis). Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
Mitchell, C. A., & Hepworth, T. C. (1904). Inks their composition and manufacture: Including methods of examination and full list of English patents. London: Charles Griffin & Company, LTD.
Monshi Qomi, M. A. B. H. (2021). Golestan-e Honar. Tehran: Academy of Arts [In Persian].
Nir-El, Y. & Broshi, M. (1996). The Black Ink of the Qumran Scrolls. Dead Sea Discoveries, 3(2), 157–167.
On paper, coloring, the Awhal, and the Mushajjar script. (2016). In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on Calligraphy and Related Arts (2rd ed., pp. 407–418). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
On paper, ink, and the colorsmaking. (2019). In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The Art of the Book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 65–80). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
On the method of making colored inks and papers. (2019). In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The Art of the Book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 619–628). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
On the script, ink, paper, and the making of colors. (2019). In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The Art of the Book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 649–663). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Pines, C. C. (1931). The Story of Ink. The American Journal of Police Science, 2(4), 290–301. 
Rabin, I. (2021). "Chapter 4 Material Studies of Historic Inks: Transition from Carbon to Iron-Gall Inks". In Traces of Ink (pp. 70-78). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Doi: 10.1163/9789004444805_006
Rafīqī Heravi, M. (2016). Khat va Savad. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on Calligraphy and Related Arts (2rd ed., pp. 251–269). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
-----. (2019). Savad al-Khatt. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), Book Decoration in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 217–245). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Sayrafi, A. (2019). Etiquette of script. In N. Mayel Heravi (Ed.), The Art of the Book in Islamic Civilization (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 11–36). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi [In Persian].
Shirazi, M. M. (2016). A chapter from the book Kashf al-Sanaei. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on Calligraphy and Related Arts (2rd ed., pp. 293–303). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
Simi Nishaburi. (2016). Johariyya. In H. R. Ghelichkhani (Ed.), Treatises on calligraphy and related arts (2rd ed., pp. 271–292). Tehran: Rozaneh [In Persian].
Soltani, Z., Farahmand Boroujeni, H., & Abed Esfahani, A. (2016a). The effect of honey as an additive on Iranian ink. Journal of Color Science and Technology, 10(1), 43–54. [In Persian]
-----. (2016b). Investigating the effect of saffron in preventing paper corrosion by iron-gall ink. Saffron Research, 4(1), 78–102. doi: 10.22077/jsr.2016.395 [In Persian].
Soltani, Z., Farahmand Boroujeni, H., & Jokar, J. (2016). A comparative study of calligraphic inks used by Iranians, Ottomans, Chinese, Indians, and Arabs. Ganjineh Asnad, 26(1), 124–138 [In Persian].
Soltani, Z., Farahmand Boroujeni, H., Abed Esfahani, A., & Ahmadi, H. (2015). The role of additives on the quality of Iranian ink: A case study of henna and salt. Ganjineh Asnad, 25(3), 128–148 [In Persian].
Talebpour, F., & Veisian, M. (2014). Dyeing woolen raw yarn with saffron petals: a study of the mordant and acid effect. Goljam, No. 25, 29–46 [In Persian].
Völkel, L., Prohaska, T. & Potthast, A. (2020). Combining phytate and nanocellulose stabilization for mitigating iron gall ink damage in historic papers. Heritage Science, No. 86, 1-15. Doi: 10.1186/s40494-020-00428-6
Zekrgoo, S. (2014). Methods of Creating, Testing and Identifying Traditional Black Persian Inks. Restaurator. International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material, 35(2), 133 - 158. Doi: 10.1515/rest-2014-1001
Zekrgoo, S., Nel, P. & Sloggett, R. (2017). Peacock Ink: Investigation into the Constituents of the Most Prized Ink of Persia. Restaurator-International Journal for the preservation of Library and Archival Material, 38(2), 205-233. Doi:10.1515/rest-2016-0033

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics